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ing. Refuges include rough or loose bark, tree holes, crooked and leaning trees, rocky ground, and artificial features such as rock walls, signs, refuse and other lairs. Chestnut oak stands on dry rocky ridges often sustain the most frequent and severe defoliation.
Even relatively resistant forests, such as vigorous red oak stands on good sites, can incur heavy defoliation, particularly when they are adjacent to highly susceptible forests. When outbreaks occur in these relatively resistant stands, tree mortality is sometimes higher than would be expected in a susceptible forest. A high level of oak mortality can render forests more resistant to subsequent defoliation.
A quantitative system for rating stand susceptibility has been developed, but it is too complex and timeconsuming for general use and its reliability in the Southeast remains untested. No system currently exists for accurately predicting the mortality that will occur following defoliation, although techniques for measuring the starch content of
90.9%